Class Notes 03/31/09

Notes from March 31st

We began with an outline of the History of American Education in 20 Minutes

I. The Colonial Period
New England and Puritans
The pilgrims came to America searching for religious freedom so they could practice their religion in their own way. The Puritans were convinced in their ways and knew that their way was the only way. They left Europe because their version of the right way was exclusionary – the Puritans were right and everyone else was wrong. They established schools to teach “their way.” The Old Deluder Satan Act of 1647 is the oldest law addressing the issue of schooling. In essence, the law stated that in order to protect their children from the constant temptation of the devil, the children had to be educated.
The first schools were established in Massachusetts with the idea of teaching children to be like their parents.


South and Lack of Education
Schools progressed more slowly in the South due to their lifestyle, based on agrarianism, power, class and caste. People grew up and worked in the farms. The people were not going to spend money on teaching the children what they could learn on the farm and at home. The will of the people was focused on the economics of the farm. The population was distributed throughout the South, sometimes living great distances from one another. The class differences also exacerbated the situation. A small few were making the decisions for everyone and their wealth made them reluctant to tax themselves to provide an education for all. The wealthy aristocrats could afford to have tutors brought in to teach their own children the proper ways of being a gentleman. With education also comes power, the aristocrats continuously denied the have nots in society so that they could maintain power and social distinction. SC was the first state to pass the Compulsory Ignorance Laws making it illegal to teach slaves to read and write.
Intertwining of education and democracy in a new nation
Thomas Jefferson insisted in system of free public schools for white boys for a minimum number of years in Virginia. The students would read and write in order to share information and knowledge. He believed that education promoted a robust, thriving society. The state legislature rejected Jefferson’s plan.
Benjamin Franklin began a private institute for boys and girls in Philadelphia that was progressive in nature, focusing on modern foreign language among others and a large emphasis was placed on science and engineering.



II. The Birth of the Common School
Horace Mann, Social Reconstruction, and Selling the Dream
Education became a highly discussed issue in Massachusetts in the 1820s and 1830s due to the involvement of Horace Mann, a lawyer who would head up the school system in the state. He advocated a statewide system for white children similar to our modern elementary schools. He wanted schools to help society develop a stronger social cohesion and democracy. If you reached the children early enough, schools could produce the desired citizens and society.
The Common School as a Common Institution
The Common School had four main characteristics:
-Common curriculum
-Be for the common person
-Be owned in common or joint ownership among the public
-Produce community
Mann sold the concept in different ways to different groups. He told unions that schooling would drive up wages and provide more skilled workers by decreasing the child labor, the wages for other workers would increase. He told manufacturing owners that the workers would be better prepared. Mann was very religious but he believed schools should remain secular. He later admitted Protestant elements in the construction which angered Catholics and led to the construction of the Catholic schools.
New schools need new teachers
Normal Schools and the Feminization of Teaching developed out of the need for more teachers in the new schools. Early on, men had primarily been teachers but slowly women began to enter into the field as there were few opportunities available. Normal schools were built (Winthrop was one of them) which trained women to be teachers. Teaching was restrictive. Women were not allowed to get married, not allowed to socialize certain places, or wear skirts that showed their ankles. The belief was that women couldn’t balance being a good wife and a good teacher which resulted in the “spinster” teachers, “old-maid” teachers, and the accusations of being lesbians. The 2nd World War ended all of that. Roosevelt expressed concern about boys being over feminized by being around women all day. He suggested the boys needed time during the day to be boys which brought about PE and sports in schools.



III. The Late 19th Century
-Growth of Public Schooling
Centralization of Government
Urbanization/Industrialization
Compulsory attendance
Morrill Acts
1st Act: donated public lands to states and territories to provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture & mechanic arts
2nd Act: apply a portion of the proceeds of the public lands to the more complete endowment and support of the colleges
Reconstruction
The High School
The Committee of Ten

Themes:
Secularization as an institution
Increased federal involvement after World War II and Supreme Court cases
Centralization/Specialization
Schools assume roles once performed by other institutions
Increase in opportunity
Schools serve as a focal point for larger social issues

Historical Stories
The Myth of Progress is the idea that we are always getting better
The Factory Metaphor is that schools are set up like a factory funneling students into set courses and rejecting those that didn’t pass the quality control exams which is equivalent to items being discarded from an assembly line.
The Myth of Merit stems from the meritocratic nature of our American society and suggests that anyone can grow up to be the president of the US
The Market Metaphor implies that schools are arenas for competition in a more global environment.

Prologue of Tyack and Cuban
The key concept that is central to their argument is that of the grammar of schooling. The idea of normal ideas about what schools are and what they should do. What constitutes school and what does not?

Concept Map of what constitutes a school

We all have a mental image about what schools are, what they look like, and what they do. These images are all similar in their appearance, structure and purpose. This is the grammar of schooling. Tinkering Toward Utopia argues about how schools came to be what they are and what schools could be like and how we can get there. The grammar of schooling was set by a group of men long ago but that may not necessarily be acceptable today. The purpose is for us to understand this grammar and question it when necessary.

Tyack and Cuban make two claims:
1. Americans have a unique faith in education based on a utopian vision – Public education is a secular religion. Through public school we can solve social problems. What leads us to think this utopian way we think of education? The idea of progress is built into the American psyche. The reason for immigration is the idea that they can come here and start new and live the American dream. Tyack & Cuban say schooling is seen as a way to achieve utopia and that faith comes with a significant downside that expectations were set so high there were bound to be disappointments. The faith still exists but it’s tarnished.
2. Change is made by tinkering, small incremental changes. Change in schools has occurred because of the utopian vision. There are two levels. One is the level of policy talk/discussion which involves much more extreme changes and more volatile. The second is the level of what actually happens in the classroom. These are more incremental and smaller. The reason for incremental change is because the grammar of schooling has been so well established. Real change happens by incremental, small steps or tinkering.

Why does this matter? So what? A number of trends have emerged that are worrisome. The utopian vision has failed and people are questioning the form of public schools. What has been lost is the historic vision that public schools exist for the public good. Tyack and Cuban want to make sure this idea stays around.

Chapter 1: Progress or Regress?
Have American schools progressed? Have they gotten better or worse? Progress is a relative term. There is a historical story called The Myth of Progress. The American idea that things are always getting better fails to capture 2 things:
1. Progress is always a relative term
2. Progress was never evenly distributed, not uniform

The Progressive Movement occurred in the early 20th century which was sparked by two signs of social shifts in the US. One is industrialization/urbanization and the other is immigration. Education became key to both things. In the late 19th century, education comes to be thought of as a science. (social sciences develop). This group of progressives think problems can be solved through education. The standardization of schools across the US which involved consolidation was supposed o create this mechanism of schooling good for all children. The compulsory laws emerged during this time.

Curren: A Discourse on Grading
Grading is a key element of the grammar of schooling. The reality of the market is that it is competitive and ranking matters. Grades are a way we are ranked. We’ve asked schools to do both, give equal opportunity but sort also.

Compiled by: Will Chappell & Allison J Gainey